Poems - The New Edition - Preface Poem Rhyme Scheme and Analysis
Rhyme Scheme: A B C D E F G H I J K L M M N O M P Q R Q S Q Q Q MO| In two small volumes of Poems published anonymously one in the other in many of the Poems which compose the present volume have already appeared The rest are now published for the first time | A |
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| I have in the present collection omitted the Poem from which the volume published in took its title I have done so not because the subject of it was a Sicilian Greek born between two and three thousand years ago although many persons would think this a sufficient reason Neither have I done so because I had in my own opinion failed in the delineation which I intended to effect I intended to delineate the feelings of one of the last of the Greek religious philosophers one of the family of Orpheus and Musaeus having survived his fellows living on into a time when the habits of Greek thought and feeling had begun fast to change character to dwindle the influence of the Sophists to prevail Into the feelings of a man so situated there entered much that we are accustomed to consider as exclusively modern how much the fragments of Empedocles himself which remain to us are sufficient at least to indicate What those who are familiar only with the great monuments of early Greek genius suppose to be its exclusive characteristics have disappeared the calm the cheerfulness the disinterested objectivity have disappeared the dialogue of the mind with itself has commenced modern problems have presented themselves we hear already the doubts we witness the discouragement of Hamlet and of Faust | B |
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| The representation of such a man's feelings must be interesting if consistently drawn We all naturally take pleasure says Aristotle in any imitation or representation whatever this is the basis of our love of Poetry and we take pleasure in them he adds because all knowledge is naturally agreeable to us not to the philosopher only but to mankind at large Every representation therefore which is consistently drawn may be supposed to be interesting inasmuch as it gratifies this natural interest in knowledge of all kinds What is not interesting is that which does not add to our knowledge of any kind that which is vaguely conceived and loosely drawn a representation which is general indeterminate and faint instead of being particular precise and firm | C |
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| Any accurate representation may therefore be expected to be interesting but if the representation be a poetical one more than this is demanded It is demanded not only that it shall interest but also that it shall inspirit and rejoice the reader that it shall convey a charm and infuse delight For the Muses as Hesiod says were born that they might be 'a forgetfulness of evils and a truce from cares' and it is i not enough that the Poet should add to the knowledge of men it is required of him also that he should add to their happiness 'All Art ' says Schiller 'is dedicated to Joy and there is no higher and no more serious problem than how to make men happy The right Art is that alone which creates the highest enjoyment | D |
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| A poetical work therefore is not yet justified when it has been shown to be an accurate and therefore interesting representation it has to be shown also that it is a representation from which men can derive enjoyment In presence of the most tragic circumstances represented in a work of Art the feeling of enjoyment as is well known may still subsist the representation of the most utter calamity of the liveliest anguish is not sufficient to destroy it the more tragic the situation the deeper becomes the enjoyment and the situation is more tragic in proportion as it becomes more terrible | E |
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| What then are the situations from the representation of which though accurate no poetical enjoyment can be derived They are those in which the suffering finds no vent in action in which a continuous state of mental distress is prolonged unrelieved by incident hope or resistance in which there is everything to be endured nothing to be done In such situations there is inevitably something morbid in the description of them something monotonous When they occur in actual life they are painful not tragic the representation of them ill poetry is painful also | F |
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| To this class of situations poetically faulty as it appears to me that of Empedocles as I have endeavoured to represent him belongs and I have therefore excluded the Poem from the present collection | G |
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| And why it may be asked have I entered into this explanation respecting a matter so unimportant as the admission or exclusion of the Poem in question I have done so because I was anxious to avow that the sole reason for its exclusion was that which has been stated above and that it has not been excluded in deference to the opinion which many critics of the present day appear to entertain against subjects chosen from distant times and countries against the choice in short of any subjects but modern ones | H |
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| 'The Poet ' it is said and by an intelligent critic 'the Poet who would really fix the public attention must leave the exhausted past and draw his subjects from matters of present import and therefore both of interest and novelty ' | - |
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| Now this view I believe to be completely false It is worth examining inasmuch as it is a fair sample of a class of critical dicta everywhere current at the present day having a philosophical form and air but no real basis in fact and which are calculated to vitiate the judgement of readers of poetry while they exert so far as they are adopted a misleading influence oil the practice of those who write it | I |
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| What are the eternal objects of Poetry among all nations and at all times They are actions human actions possessing an inherent interest in themselves and which are to be communicated in an interesting manner by the art of the Poet Vainly will the latter imagine that he has everything in his own power that he can make an intrinsically inferior action equally delightful with a more excellent one by his treatment of it he may indeed compel us to admire his skill but his work will possess within itself an incurable defect | J |
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| The Poet then has in the first place to select an excellent action and what actions are the most excellent Those certainly which most powerfully appeal to the great primary human affections to those elementary feelings which subsist permanently in the race and which are independent of time These feelings are permanent and the same that which interests them is permanent and the same also The modernness or antiquity of an action therefore has nothing to do with its fitness for poetical representation this depends upon its inherent qualities To the elementary part of our nature to our passions that which is great and passionate is eternally interesting and interesting solely in proportion to its greatness and to its passion A great human action of a thousand years ago is more interesting to it than a smaller human action of to day even though upon the representation of this last the most consummate skill may have been expended and though it has the advantage of appealing by its modern language familiar manners and contemporary allusions to all our transient feelings and interests These however have no right to demand of a poetical work that it shall satisfy them their claims are to be directed elsewhere Poetical works belong to the domain of our permanent passions let them interest these and the voice of all subordinate claims upon there is at once silenced | K |
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| Achilles Prometheus Clytemnestra Dido what modern poem presents personages as interesting even to us moderns as these personages of an 'exhausted past' We have the domestic epic dealing with the details of modern life which pass daily under our eyes we have poems representing modern personages in contact with the problems of modern life moral intellectual and social these works have been produced by poets the most distinguished of their nation and time yet I fearlessly assert that Hermann and Dorothea Childe Harold Jocelyn The Excursion leave the reader cold in comparison with the effect produced upon him by the latter books of the Iliad by the Orestea or by the episode of Dido And why is this Simply because in the three latter cases the action is greater the personages nobler the situations more intense and this is the true basis of the interest in a poetical work and this alone | L |
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| It may be urged however that past actions may be interesting in themselves but that they are not to be adopted by the modern Poet because it is impossible for him to have them clearly present to his own mind and lie cannot therefore feel them deeply nor represent them forcibly But this is not necessarily the case The externals of a past action indeed he cannot know with the precision of a contemporary but his business is with its essentials The outward man of Oedipus or of Macbeth the houses in which they lived the ceremonies of their courts he cannot accurately figure to himself but neither do they essentially concern him His business is with their inward man with their feelings and behaviour in certain tragic situations which engage their passions as men these have in them nothing local and casual they are as accessible to the modern Poet as to a contemporary | M |
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| The date of an action then signifies nothing the action itself its selection and construction this is what is all important This the Greeks understood far more clearly than we do The radical difference between their poetical theory and ours consists as it appears to me in this that with then the poetical character of the action in itself and the conduct of it was the first consideration with us attention is fixed mainly on the value of the separate thoughts and images which occur in the treatment of an action They regarded the whole we regard the parts With them the action predominated over the expression of it with us the expression predominates over the action Not that they failed in expression or were inattentive to it on the contrary they are the highest models of expression the unapproached masters of the grand style but their expression is so excellent because it is so admirably kept in its right degree of prominence because it is so simple and so well subordinated because it draws its force directly from the pregnancy of the matter which it conveys For what reason was the Greek tragic poet confined to so limited a range of subjects Because there are so few actions which unite in themselves in the highest degree the conditions of excellence and it was not thought that on any but an excellent subject could an excellent Poem be constructed A few actions therefore eminently adapted for tragedy maintained almost exclusive possession of the Greek tragic stage their significance appeared inexhaustible they were as permanent problems perpetually offered to the genius of every fresh poet This too is the reason of what appears to us moderns a certain baldness of expression in Greek tragedy of the triviality with which we often reproach the remarks of the chorus where it takes part in the dialogue that the action itself the situation of Orestes or Merope or Alcmaeon was to stand the central point of interest unforgotten absorbing principal that no accessories were for a moment to distract the spectator's attention from this that the tone of the parts was to be perpetually kept down in order not to impair the grandiose effect of the whole The terrible old mythic story on which the drama was founded stood before he entered the theatre traced in its bare outlines upon the spectator's mind it stood in his memory as a group of statuary faintly seen at the end of a long and dark vista then came the Poet embodying outlines developing situations not a word wasted not a sentiment capriciously thrown in stroke upon stroke the drama proceeded the light deepened upon the group more and more it revealed itself to the rivetted gaze of the spectator until at last when the final words were spoken it stood before him in broad sunlight a model of immortal beauty | M |
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| This was what a Greek critic demanded this was what a Greek poet endeavoured to effect It signified nothing to what time an action belonged we do not find that the Persae occupied a particularly high rank among the dramas of Aeschylus because it represented a matter of contemporary interest this was not what a cultivated Athenian required he required that the permanent elements of his nature should be moved and dramas of which the action though taken from a long distant mythic time yet was calculated to accomplish this in a higher degree than that of the Persae stood higher in his estimation accordingly The Greeks felt no doubt with their exquisite sagacity of taste that an action of present times was too near them too much mixed up with what was accidental and passing to form a sufficiently grand detached and self subsistent object for a tragic poem such objects belonged to the domain of the comic poet and of the lighter kinds of poetry For the more serious kinds for pragmatic poetry to use an excellent expression of Polybius they were more difficult and severe in the range of subjects which they permitted Their theory and practice alike the admirable treatise of Aristotle and the unrivalled works of their poets exclaim with a thousand tongues 'All depends upon the subject choose a fitting action penetrate yourself with the feeling of its situations this done everything else will follow ' | - |
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| But for all kinds of poetry alike there was one point on which they were rigidly exacting the adaptability of the subject to the kind of poetry selected and the careful construction of the poem | N |
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| How different a way of thinking from this is ours We can hardly at the present day understand what Menander meant when he told a man who inquired as to the progress of his comedy that he had finished it not having yet written a single line because he had constructed the action of it in his mind A modern critic would have assured him that the merit of his piece depended on the brilliant things which arose under his pen as he went along We have poems which seem to exist merely for the sake of single lines and passages not for the sake of producing any total impression We have critics who seem to direct their attention merely to detached expressions to the language about the action not to the action itself I verily think that the majority of them do not in their hearts believe that there is such a thing as a total impression to be derived from a poem at all or to be demanded from a poet they think the term a commonplace of metaphysical criticism They will permit the Poet to select any action he pleases and to suffer that action to go as it will provided he gratifies them with occasional bursts of fine writing and with a shower of isolated thoughts and images That is they permit him to leave their poetical sense ungratified provided that he gratifies their rhetorical sense and their curiosity Of his neglecting to gratify these there is little danger he needs rather to be warned against the danger of attempting to gratify these alone he needs rather to be perpetually reminded to prefer his action to everything else so to treat this as to permit its inherent excellences to develop themselves without interruption from the intrusion of his personal peculiarities most fortunate when he most entirely succeeds in effacing himself and in enabling a noble action to subsist as it did in nature | O |
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| But the modern critic not only permits a false practice lie absolutely prescribes false aims 'A true allegory of the state of one's own mind in a representative history ' the Poet is told 'is perhaps the highest thing that one can attempt in the way of poetry ' And accordingly he attempts it An allegory of the state of one's own mind the highest problem of an art which imitates actions No assuredly it is not it never can be so no great poetical work has ever been produced with such an aim Faust itself in which something of the kind is attempted wonderful passages as it contains and in spite of the unsurpassed beauty of the scenes which relate to Margaret Faust itself judged as a whole and judged strictly as a poetical work is defective its illustrious author the greatest poet of modern times the greatest critic of all times would have been the first to acknowledge it he only defended his work indeed by asserting it to be 'something incommensurable ' | - |
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| The confusion of the present times is great the multitude of voices counselling different things bewildering the number of existing works capable of attracting a young writer's attention and of becoming his models immense what he wants is a hand to guide him through the confusion a voice to prescribe to him the aim which he should keep in view and to explain to him that the value of the literary works which offer themselves to his attention is relative to their power of helping him forward on his road towards this aim Such a guide the English writer at the present day will nowhere find Failing this all that can be looked for all indeed that can be desired is that his attention should be fixed on excellent models that he may reproduce at any rate something of their excellence by penetrating himself with their works and by catching their spirit if he cannot be taught to produce what is excellent independently | M |
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| Foremost among these models for the English writer stands Shakespeare a name the greatest perhaps of all poetical names a name never to be mentioned without reverence I will venture however to express a doubt whether the influence of his works excellent and fruitful for the readers of poetry for the great majority has been of unmixed advantage to the writers of it Shakespeare indeed chose excellent subjects the world could afford no better than Macbeth or Romeo and Juliet or Othello he had no theory respecting the necessity of choosing subjects of present import or the paramount interest attaching to allegories of the state of one's own mind like all great poets he knew well what constituted a poetical action like them wherever he found such an action he took it like them too he found his best in past times But to these general characteristics of all great poets he added a special one of his own a gift namely of happy abundant and ingenious expression eminent and unrivalled so eminent as irresistibly to strike the attention first in him and even to throw into comparative shade his other excellences as a poet Here has been the mischief These other excellences were his fundamental excellences as a poet what distinguishes the artist from the mere amateur says Goethe is Architectonic in the highest sense that power of execution which creates forms and constitutes not the profoundness of single thoughts not the richness of imagery not the abundance of illustration But these attractive accessories of a poetical work being more easily seized than the spirit of the whole and these accessories being possessed by Shakespeare in an unequalled degree a young writer having recourse to Shakespeare as his model runs great risk of being vanquished and absorbed by them and in consequence of reproducing according to the measure of his power these and these alone Of this preponderating quality of Shakespeare's genius accordingly almost the whole of modern English poetry has it appears to me felt the influence To the exclusive attention on the part of his imitators to this it is in a great degree owing that of the majority of modern poetical works the details alone are valuable the composition worthless In reading them one is perpetually reminded of that terrible sentence on a modern French poet il dit tout ce qu'il veut mais malheureusenaent il n'a rich dire | P |
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| Let me give an instance of what I mean I will take it from the works of the very chief among those who seem to have been formed in the school of Shakespeare of one whose exquisite genius and pathetic death render him for ever interesting I will take the poem of Isabella or the Pot of Basil by Keats I choose this rather than the Endymion because the latter work which a modern critic has classed with the Fairy Queen although undoubtedly there blows through it the breath of genius is yet as a whole so utterly incoherent as not strictly to merit the name of a poem at all The poem of Isabella then is a perfect treasure house of graceful and felicitous words and images almost in every stanza there occurs one of those vivid and picturesque turns of expression by which the object is made to flash upon the eye of the mind and which thrill the reader with a sudden delight This one short poem contains perhaps a greater number of happy single expressions which one could quote than all the extant tragedies of Sophocles But the action the story The action in itself is an excellent one but so feebly is it conceived by the Poet so loosely constructed that the effect produced by it in and for itself is absolutely null Let the reader after he has finished the poem of Keats turn to the same story in the Decameron he will then feel how pregnant and interesting the same action has become in the hands of a great artist who above all things delineates his object who subordinates expression to that which it is designed to express | Q |
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| I have said that the imitators of Shakespeare fixing their attention on his wonderful gift of expression have directed their imitation to this neglecting his other excellences These excellences the fundamental excellences of poetical art Shakespeare no doubt possessed them possessed many of them in a splendid degree but it may perhaps be doubted whether even he himself did not sometimes give scope to his faculty of expression to the prejudice of a higher poetical duty For we must never forget that Shakespeare is the great poet he is from his skill in discerning and firmly conceiving an excellent action from his power of intensely feeling a situation of intimately associating himself with a character not from his gift of expression which rather even leads him astray degenerating sometimes into a fondness for curiosity of expression into an irritability of fancy which seems to make it impossible for him to say a thing plainly even when the press of the action demands the very directest language or its level character the very simplest Mr Hallam than whom it is impossible to find a saner and more judicious critic has had the courage for at the present day it needs courage to remark how extremely and faultily difficult Shakespeare's language often is It is so you may find main scenes in some of his greatest tragedies King Lear for instance where the language is so artificial so curiously tortured and so difficult that every speech has to be read two or three times before its meaning can be comprehended This over curiousness of expression is indeed but the excessive employment of a wonderful gift of the power of saying a thing in a happier way than any other man nevertheless it is carried so far that one understands what M Guizot meant when he said that Shakespeare appears in his language to have tried all styles except that of simplicity He has not the severe and scrupulous self restraint of the ancients partly no doubt because he had a far less cultivated and exacting audience he has indeed a far wider range than they had a far richer fertility of thought in this respect he rises above them in his strong conception of his subject in the genuine way in which he is penetrated with it he resembles them and is unlike the moderns but in the accurate limitation of it the conscientious rejection of superfluities the simple and rigorous development of it from the first line of his work to the last he falls below them and comes nearer to the moderns In his chief works besides what he has of his own he has the elementary soundness of the ancients he has their important action and their large and broad manner but he has not their purity of method He is therefore a less safe model for what he has of his own is personal and inseparable from his own rich nature it may be imitated and exaggerated it cannot be learned or applied as an art he is above all suggestive more valuable therefore to young writers as men than as artists But clearness of arrangement rigour of development simplicity of style these may to a certain extent be learned and these may I am convinced be learned best from the ancients who although infinitely less suggestive than Shakespeare are thus to the artist more instructive | R |
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| What then it will be asked are the ancients to be our sole models the ancients with their comparatively narrow range of experience and their widely different circumstances Not certainly that which is narrow in the ancients nor that in which we can no longer sympathize An action like the action of the Antigone of Sophocles which turns upon the conflict between the heroine's duty to her brother's corpse and that to the laws of her country is no longer one in which it is possible that we should feel a deep interest I am speaking too it will be remembered not of the best sources of intellectual stimulus for the general reader but of the best models of instruction for the individual writer This last may certainly learn of the ancients better than anywhere else three things which it is vitally important for him to know the all importance of the choice of a subject the necessity of accurate construction and the subordinate character of expression He will learn from them how unspeakably superior is the effect of the one moral impression left by a great action treated as a whole to the effect produced by the most striking single thought or by the happiest image As he penetrates into the spirit of the great classical works as he becomes gradually aware of their intense significance their noble simplicity and their calm pathos he will be convinced that it is this effect unity and profoundness of moral impression at which the ancient Poets aimed that it is this which constitutes the grandeur of their works and which makes them immortal He will desire to direct his own efforts towards producing the same effect Above all he will deliver himself from the jargon of modern criticism and escape the danger of producing poetical works conceived in the spirit of the passing time and which partake of its transitoriness | Q |
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| The present age makes great claims upon us we owe it service it will not be satisfied without our admiration I know not how it is but their commerce with the ancients appears to me to produce in those who constantly practise it a steadying and composing effect upon their judgement not of literary works only but of men and events in general They are like persons who have had a very weighty and impressive experience they are more truly than others under the empire of facts and more independent of the language current among those with whom they live They wish neither to applaud nor to revile their age they wish to know what it is what it can give them and whether this is what they want What they want they know very well they want to educe and cultivate what is best and noblest in themselves they know too that this is no easy task as Pittacus said and they ask themselves sincerely whether their age and its literature can assist them in the attempt If they are endeavouring to practise any art they remember the plain and simple proceedings of the old artists who attained their grand results by penetrating themselves with some noble and significant action not by inflating themselves with a behef in the pre eminent importance and greatness of their own times They do not talk of their mission nor of interpreting their age nor of the coming Poet all this they know is the mere delirium of vanity their business is not to praise their age but to afford to the men who live in it the highest pleasure which they are capable of feeling If asked to afford this by means of subjects drawn from the age itself they ask what special fitness the present ago has for supplying them they are told that it is an era of progress an age commissioned to carry out the great ideas of industrial development and social amelioration They reply that with all this they can do nothing that the elements they need for the exercise of their art are great actions calculated powerfully and delightfully to affect what is permanent in the human soul that so far as the present ago can supply such actions they will gladly make use of them but that an ago wanting in moral grandeur can with difficulty supply such and an age of spiritual discomfort with difficulty be powerfully and delightfully affected by them | S |
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| A host of voices will indignantly rejoin that the present age is inferior to the past neither in moral grandeur nor in spiritual health He who possesses the discipline I speak of will content himself with remembering the judgements passed upon the present age in this respect by the two men the one of strongest head the other of widest culture whom it has produced by Goethe and by Niebuhr It will be sufficient for him that he knows the opinions held by these two great men respecting the present age and its literature and that he feels assured in his own mind that their aims and demands upon life were such as he would wish at any rate his own to be and their judgement as to what is impeding and disabling such as he may safely follow He will not however maintain a hostile attitude towards the false pretensions of his age he will content himself with not being overwhelmed by them He will esteem himself fortunate if he can succeed in banishing from his mind all feelings of contradiction and irritation and impatience in order to delight himself with the contemplation of some noble action of a heroic time and to enable others through his representation of it to delight in it also | Q |
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| I am far indeed from making any claim for myself that I possess this discipline or for the following Poems that they breathe its spirit But I say that in the sincere endeavour to learn and practise amid the bewildering confusion of our times what is sound and true in poetical art I seemed to myself to find the only sure guidance the only solid footing among the ancients They at any rate knew what they wanted in Art and we do not It is this uncertainty which is disheartening and not hostile criticism How often have I felt this when reading words of disparagement or of cavil that it is the uncertainty as to what is really to be aimed at which makes our difficulty not the dissatisfaction of the critic who himself suffers from the same uncertainty Non me tua fervida terrent Dicta Dii me terrent et Jupiter hostis | Q |
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| Two kinds of dilettanti says Goethe there are in poetry he who neglects the indispensable mechanical part and thinks he has done enough if he shows spirituality and feeling and he who seeks to arrive at poetry merely by mechanism in which he can acquire an artisan's readiness and is without soul and matter And he adds that the first does most harm to Art and the last to himself If we must be dilettanti if it is impossible for us under the circumstances amidst which we live to think clearly to feel nobly and to delineate firmly if we cannot attain to the mastery of the great artists let us at least have so much respect for our Art as to prefer it to ourselves let us not bewilder our successors let us transmit to them the practice of Poetry with its boundaries and wholesome regulative laws under which excellent works may again perhaps at some future time be produced not yet fallen into oblivion through our neglect not yet condemned and cancelled by the influence of their eternal enemy Caprice | Q |
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| FOX HOW AMBLESIDE | M |
| October | O |
Matthew Arnold
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